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An Introduction to Marxist Research In China

By Professor Yang Ding Jinhai, Central Compilation & Translation Bureau, China

Note:
The following essay was published in the Bulletin of the Marx Memorial Library, London, and is published here since it carries valuable clues to the thinking behind current trends within the Communist Party of China (CPC). We are developing a response to it which will be published in due course, but comments from other readers would be welcomed.

A number of issues deserve consideration:

* How do we define a "Marxist classical writer"? It appears that the writer does not include Trotsky, Stalin or - unsurprisingly, but significantly - Mao, under this rubric. What of Plekhanov, or Kautsky?
* In considering the works of Marx, is the corpus of his work to be considered as a monolithic whole, or as the development of thought in progress? Are the earliest writings as valid as his last? Can we assume that he did not move on from the concepts he developed as a student?
* Is it valid to elevate the works of "Marxist classical writers" to the status of sacred texts, to which hermeneutics may be applied?
* And, most tellingly, what does this essay reveal about the philosophical thinking behind the current policies of the CPC?

There have been three stages in the history of research in China on the works and thinking of Marxist classical writers. In the first stage, before the founding of New China in 1949, a portion of the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin were translated and studied. In the second stage, from the founding of New China to the introduction of the reform and opening up policy in 1978, all the works were systematically translated and studied. In the third stage, from 1978 to the present, the works were retranslated and thoroughly studied. It would not be possible to discuss these stages in great detail here, but this paper will provide a general introduction to the translation of the classical works of Marxism and to research on their basic viewpoints in the 21st century.

I. Overview of Marxist Translation and Research Work in China in the New Century

China entered a new period of reform, opening up and socialist modernization with the beginning of the new century, marked by a great deal of activity in the country's ideological and theoretical circles. Recent achievements in translation and research work on the works of classical Marxist writers are discussed below.

l. Further progress has been made in the compilation and translation of the classical works of Marxism. The first edition of the Chinese version of all 50 volumes of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels was published in 1985, and the first volume of the second edition, compiled and translated by the Central Compilation and Translation Bureau and published by the People's Publishing House, came out in 1995, followed by another 20 volumes. Plans call for all 60 to 70 volumes to he published by 2020.

After completing the second edition of the Chinese version of the Collected Works of Lenin, the Central Compilation and Translation Bureau compiled and translated a small number of newly discovered works of Lenin in the Supplement to the Collected Works of Lenin. Some volumes of this work began coming out in 2001. The Bureau is still continuing to compile and translate documents of Marxism-Leninism, which are being published by the People's Publishing House. These documents consist of the major works of the classical writers of Marxism-Leninism and are coming out in separate editions.

In April 2004, China launched the Marxist Theoretical Research and Development Project. For this project, the Central Compilation & Translation Bureau will be examining and revising the translations of the main works of classical Marxist writers. The Bureau plans to translate the ten-volume Selected Works of Marx and Engels, containing important works from the second edition of the Chinese version of Collected Works of Marx and Engels. In addition, the Bureau plans to edit the five-volume Selected Special Works of Lenin. These volumes will all be published by the People's Publishing House in 2007. Work on these volumes is now underway.

2. Research was carried out on editions of classical works. First, the MEGA (Marx/Engels Gesamtausgabe) was studied and introduced. For example, Bike Kopf, German expert of the Central Compilation & Translation Bureau, and Wei Xiaoping of the Institute of Philosophy of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences coauthored the article "Reading and Exploring the Original Edition of Marx and Engels." Other scholars of the Bureau also published articles and reports in this regard.

In addition, research was done on the Chinese and foreign editions of other works of classical writers. For example, Yang Jinhai and Hu Yongqing carefully re-examined the Chinese editions of the Manifesto of the Communist Party.

3. Textual criticism and research were carried out on the various versions of the classical works. The journal Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Research of the Central Compilation & Translation Bureau translated, studied and introduced the newly discovered literature of classical writers and related material. In addition, some scholars made comparative studies of the Chinese version of the original of Marx and Engels and published their research results.

4. Translations of the important concepts contained in classical works have been discussed and revised. For example, some scholars questioned "xiaomie" (destroy), the Chinese translation of "autheben" in the statement that communism should "autheben" private ownership. They believed that the term should be translated as "yangqi" (discard). Another example is that the term "okonomische Gesellschafisformation" in the works of Marx was translated as "shehui jingji xingtai" (social economic formation) in the first edition of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels, but the translation was changed to "jingji de shehui xingtai" (economic social formation) in the second edition.

5. The research methods used on the texts of classical works were re-examined. Generally speaking, five methods have been used to interpret Marx's texts. One is to use Engels's thinking of the late 19th century to interpret the classical texts of Marxism. The second is to use the Soviet theory from the first half of the 20th century to interpret the texts of Marx and Engels. The third is to use the Western Marxist theory that emerged after the middle of the 20th century to interpret these texts. The fourth is to interpret them by using the theories of socialist countries of the late 20th century particularly since the demise of the Soviet Union and disintegration of some Eastern European socialist countries. The fifth method, which is fairly well accepted among most scholars, is to interpret Marx and Engels on the basis of the text themselves.

How can the texts of Marx and Engels be correctly interpreted? In general Chinese scholars agree to the following:

First, the texts should be carefully studied not only in Chinese but also in the original language.

Second, the surface meaning as well as the unique linguistic environment of the important concepts in the classical work should be fully understood.

Third, the "linguistic environment" must be carefully studied, including both "the micro-environment," i.e., the context, and "macro-environment" i.e., the entire historical background of the time, including social conditions, cultural environment, relevant texts of other writers, the life path of classical writers and their sources, and the starting point, system, logic and essence of their theory.

Fourth, it is necessary to study the texts in the context of our times and current practices. Because classical writers had many ideas, it is impossible and unnecessary for us to acquire a clear understanding of all of them, but we should first of all understand the theoretical issues that have great practical significance for our practice today. Only in this way can we study Marxism flexibly instead of dogmatically.

Fifth, it is necessary to expand results from research on the texts. By learning from the case study methods of Western "Marxology" we should establish a scientific "Marxology" or even a "Marxismology" in China that requires carrying out general and comprehensive research on Marxism instead of concentrating only Marxist philosophy, political economy and scientific socialism rather than comprehensive research on Marxism.

Sixth, it is essential to study the relationship between research on the texts and research in other areas including, for example, Marxism, the history of the development of Marxism, the history of Marxist philosophy, and the studies done by other researchers on Marxist texts. It is also imperative to correctly handle the relationship between the subjects and objects in the research on texts, between the research on texts and theoretical research, and between the research on texts and reality.

II. Research on the Basic Viewpoints of the Classical Works of Marxism

Chinese scholars have been studying a number of the fundamental viewpoints of classical Marxist literature in recent years, tying their studies to the actual situation in China's reform and development. The results of this effort were numerous.

In April 2004 China launched the Marxist Theoretical Research and Development Project and specified that research on the basic viewpoints of the classical works of Marxism would be the most important work of the project. The Central Compilation & Translation Bureau is directing this task, with over 200 experts and scholars from the Party School of the CPC Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and other organizations participating in the work. The project is divided into 18 topics basically covering all the fundamental viewpoint of the classical works of Marxism including, for example, viewpoints on dialectical materialism, historical materialism, ownership, labor value theory, surplus value theory, distribution theory, socialist and communist society, historical process of capitalism, class and class struggle, proletarian dictatorship, building of Marxist political parties, political civilization, ideology, advanced culture, path of social development in economically backward countries, balanced economic and social development, all-round personal development of people, prevailing themes of the times, globalization, agriculture and farmers, religions, ethnic groups, war and peace and improvement in the people's armed forces.

The Chinese government attach great importance to research on these issues. It has stipulated that research on each topic of the project is to be considered a major project financed by the State Social Sciences Fund.

The project topic teams are now carefully sorting through and carefully studying these issues to trace their origins. For example, they are carefully studying the fundamental viewpoints of classical writers that may have been neglected in the past but which are of' great theoretical and practical significance today. They are analyzing and evaluating the views and disputes among Chinese and foreign theoreticians in recent years. With reference to the current practice in the world and the building of socialism with Chinese characteristics, they are carefully looking for answers to the following four questions:

" What are the basic tenets of Marxism that we must adhere to for a long time to come?
" What are the Marxist theories that we should enrich and develop based on our new reality?
" What are the dogmatic interpretations of Marxism that we must discard?
" What are the erroneous viewpoints imposed on Marxism that we must clarify?

The teams are taking a scientific attitude in studying Marxism and using developing Marxism to guide China's most recently adopted practices. All the research teams have published academic results. The teams are now editing and compiling two sets of books entitled Marxist Studies and Translations of famous Works on Marxism. In addition, they will be compiling and publishing a series of books entitled Research on the Basic Marxist Theories and a number of books and articles on the basic tenets of Marxism and the history of the development of Marxism.

The main results achieved in recent years in the research on the basic viewpoints of the classical works of Marxism are summed up below.

I. Research was carried out adhering to the spirit of the classical writers themselves in keeping up with the times. After the important thought of Marx, Engels and Lenin was formulated, scholars did in-depth research on the thinking of classical writers on the spirit of keeping up with the times and produced many results. Their representative works are Marxism Is a Theory that Develops, History of the Notion of Emancipating Our Minds: History of the Development of Marxism. These works have played a positive role in promoting the study of the history of the development of Marxism and promote the spirit of keeping up with the times as it is popular today.
II. Comprehensive research was done in Marxism. In the past, Marxism was usually divided into three parts - philosophy, political economy and scientific socialism, making it easier to develop specific disciplines and easier to study and teach. More and more scholars, however, are now concluding that this approach does not take into account the need to study and understand the connections among the three aspects, resulting in a lack of comprehensive understanding of Marxism.
Today therefore, most scholars emphasize the need to carry out comprehensive research of Marxism, that is, research on the thinking of classical writers as a system. Only by so doing can we find that Marxism is a scientific system that integrates science with value. In terms of value, Marxism sets its highest value objective for liberating the entire mankind and achieving the all-round personal development of people. In term of science, Marxism sheds light on the laws governing the development of human society.
III. The sources of Marxism were re-examined. More and more scholars hold that the sources of Marxism, particularly the sources of Marx's thinking, are not merely the classical philosophy of Germany, the classical political economy of England, and the utopian socialism of France as was believed in the past. The sources also include modern Western humanism and the philosophic thinking of ancient Greece.
IV. Historical materialism was re-examined. A number of views of historical materialism were thoroughly examined. For example, some scholars believe that the laws of social development should cover more areas and that globalization also represents a law of economic and social development. They also believe that a new interpretation should be formulated concerning the nature of socialism.
V. Thorough research was carried out on some important theoretical issues in political economy. Some important theoretical issues in political economy were carefully studied. In particular, lively discussions have been held concerning the labor theory of value, the theory of surplus value, form of ownership, and the concept of to each according to his work since the Sixteenth National Congress of the CPC in 2002.
VI. Close attention was paid to research on the classical writers' new understanding of capitalism.
First: research was done on the form of transition from the capitalist production mode to a socialist mode. Many scholars hold that in his Capital, Marx came to realize that just like workers' cooperative factories, the shareholding system under capitalism represents a growth area or a transition form of the new social production modes under capitalism, but we viewed the shareholding system as capitalist in the past, and this is the ideological reason why we have long refrained from introducing a shareholding system.
Second: research was done on the new understanding Engels had about capitalism in his later years. Most scholars believe that in his later years, Engels was sure that capitalism still had development potential and criticized the erroneous judgments he had made.
Third: research was done on the thinking of Lenin in his later years about using capitalism to develop socialism. In particular, the works and thinking about the New Economic Policy of Lenin after 1921 was thoroughly studied. All this research is of great significance for our efforts to correctly understand capitalism and handle the relationship between socialism and capitalism.
VII. Research was done on the classical writers' new understanding of socialism! Scholars hold that in their later years, Marx and Engels placed greater emphasis or the need to criticize utopian socialism and were opposed to a man-made design for future socialism. They realized that it would be long process for the socialist revolution to triumph, that all efforts must proceed from reality, and that recent changes in capitalism should be carefully studied to determine the policies and tactics of the proletarian revolution and they came to understand that in countries where conditions permitted, the working class should strive to use universal suffrage to secure political power. All this research is of great importance for us to correctly understand socialism and the world socialist movement.
VIII. Close attention was paid to research on the thinking of the classical writers about the social development road in backward countries in the East. Research was done on the commentaries Marx wrote for the New York Daily Tribune and his "Letter to Vera Zasulich" (1881), Engels's "On Russia's Social Problems" (1894) and notes Marx and Engels left about their Oriental social research. The researchers acquired a better understanding of Marxist law of social development and Marxist road of development. In particular, they realized that to build socialism, Oriental countries must acquire modern productive forces and exchange systems created by advanced Western capitalist countries as soon as possible and diligently work to eliminate the ideological roots of feudalism.
IX. Close attention was paid to research on the thinking of Marx and Engels about globalization. In works such as The German Ideology, The Manifesto of the Communist Party and Capital, Marx and Engels frequently discuss globalization. Although they do nor use the term "globalization," they use concepts such as "the history of the world." They had a lot of ideas in this regard.
X. Close attention was paid to research on the classical writers' thinking about personal development of people. In his works such as Economics and Philosophy Manuscript in 1844, The German Ideology, The Manifesto of the Communist Party and The Development of Socialism from Utopia to Science, Marx expresses many views about people's free and all-round personal development. However, not enough research had been done in this regard. In recent years, and especially after the Communist Party of China formulated the concept of "people-centered" Scientific Outlook on Development in 2003, scholars have begun to hold many discussions on these views, thus acquiring a deeper understanding of the law governing people's personal development and the relationship between personal development and social development.
XI. Close attention was paid to research on the classical writers' thinking about political civilization and the development of ruling parties. In particular, in-depth research was carried our on Lenin's views about how to improve socialist democracy, step up political restructuring, oppose bureaucratism and develop socialist culture. This deepened the researchers' understanding of the laws governing socialist development and the law governing improvement of ruling parties.
XII. Close attention was paid to research on the classical writers' thinking about balanced social development. In particular, research was conducted on their views about balancing development of man, society and nature contained in Engels's Dialectics of Nature. This research is of great importance for our efforts to build a harmonious socialist society. During recent years, research on the works of the classical writers of Marxism and their thinking has developed considerably, and the development can be summarized as a more thorough treatment in three areas.
First, the translations of the major works of the classical writers were thoroughly examined and revised.
Second, different versions of the classical works were thoroughly assessed and studied in-depth.
Third, the basic viewpoints in the classical works were studied in-depth taking into consideration actual conditions. Particular attention was paid to studying theoretical viewpoints that were neglected in the past but are especially enlightening today. As a result, the research of today is far better than the research of the past it terms of methodology, areas, results and social impact.

III - Future Trends in Research on the Classical Works of Marxism

From the perspective of development, there are three trends in the development of the research on the classical works of Marxism.
I. Major progress is being made in the compilation and translation of the classical works. By 2007, the Central Compilation & Translation Bureau will complete its publication of the ten-volume the Selected Works of Marx and Engels and the five-volume the Selected Special Works of Lenin. By 2010, about 30, or more than half, of the volumes of' the second edition of the Chinese version of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels will be published. The Chinese translations of some newly discovered classical works are also going to be published, and revisions of some of the major translations will also be completed. All this will greatly promote research on the basic theory of Marxism.
II. Research on different versions of the classical works is shifting from the current stage of successful preparatory work to a stage of substantial results. Research on different versions is still in the stage of' discussing their importance and methodology in a general and abstract way. Extensive and thorough research will follow. As articles of the MEGA edition are being translated and introduced and other versions and relevant documents are being acquired from other countries and studied in China, and China's new generation of scholars acquire a better understanding of foreign languages and increase their international academic exchange activities, there will be extensive research carried out on the different versions of the classical works (including comparative research on the versions in Chinese, in the original and in other languages). This will open up a whole new field of theoretical research on Marxism, create a new atmosphere in research on the basic theory of the history of the development of Marxism, and the history of Marxist philosophy, and more achievements will be made in research methodology, research scope and development of theoretical systems.
III. Research on the basic viewpoints of the classical works is entering a new stage.
First, a new consensus is forming on what the basic viewpoints are and research on them is greatly increasing. In the past, it was generally believed that the bask viewpoints described in textbooks were the true basic viewpoints. Today however more and more scholars realize that the scope of the basic viewpoints was not always consistent so that all the important views of the classical writers on major issues can be viewed as their basic viewpoints. Research is therefore needed on both the basic viewpoints that have been identified and the basic viewpoints that have been overlooked. In particular, in-depth research is needed on the basic viewpoints that have been overlooked but are of special significance for today's practical issues. For example, we need to carry out thorough research on the ideas of Marx and Engels about people's all-round personal development, globalization, balanced social development, improvement of democracy, transformation of the industrial structure further changes in capitalism, and the relationship between socialism and capitalism as well as Lenin's ideas about socialist economic, political and cultural development and improvement of the ruling parties.
Second, more thorough research on the basic viewpoints about the three kinds of laws (laws governing the development of human society, socialist development and improvement in Marxist ruling parties) will be carried out. Under the influence of' revolutionary traditions, people in the past consciously and unconsciously believed that Marxism was a revolutionary theory of the proletariat and therefore viewed Marxism from a revolutionary perspective. A great deal of research was carried out on issues related to revolution to the neglect of research on other issues. Today, more and more people realize the necessity to shift the perspective to socialist development and do more research on the theories of the classical works concerning social development especially concerning the theory of developing a socialist society. Only by so doing can we demonstrate the vitality of Marxism and guide our actual practice with theoretical research.
Third, the comprehensive approach to research on Marxism is becoming more and more common. There are many related issues, including, for example, what Marxism is, how to define it in a broad sense and a narrow sense, what the basic viewpoints of Marxism are, what the Marxist theories of revolution and development are, what their relationship is, whether Marxism's views on the three kinds of laws can form a theoretical system, and if it can, what is its relationship to the three original parts of Marxism? Research on these issues will put a whole new face or research on the basic theory of Marxism and put a fundamental stop to the long-term practice of divorcing theory from practice. As these problems are gradually solved better answers will emerge to four theoretical questions that are of widespread concern to the people, the vitality of Marxist theory will be greatly increased, and promotion of China's socialist modernization will become more effective.